The History Of Bossa Nova

The History Of Bossa Nova The Brazilian music style Bossa Nova is a music genre part of Brazilian Popular Music created in 1958 and faded out about 1963, lasting officially only six years. This musical style is probably the most known style from Brazil in the whole world, having achieved significant success in the four parts of the world such as the United States, Western Europe, Japan and most importantly in its country of birth. This important music style shall be investigated and analysed carefully in the hope of obtaining valuable and interesting points about the history of this revolutionary musical phenomenon. To understand the musical style it is essential to first understand the origin of the term Bossa Nova. The term Bossa was widely used in the 1930s as a slang word in the city of Rio de Janeiro. It meant to do something in a different but very original way. The term was basically used to describe something in a cool or trendy way. The Portuguese word Nova in simple English term means new. The translation of the whole term would therefore be something like New Trend. The term basically was created by the youth of that time, as a form of opposing everything they believed to be old, ancient and outdated in Brazilian Music. Bossa Nova was heavily criticised when it first came out to the people, mainly due to its strong influences from American music and especially on post war American culture. Big names such as of pianist Stan Kenton were said to be a major influence on the style, due to his new and innovative methods in his American jazz orchestra. Another influence mentioned by critics is of impressionist composers such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Rave, both playing an important role in the creation of the style. The most obvious and most common style influence however to the human ear comes clearly from American music such as cool jazz and even bebop. This is mainly due to the use of dissonant chords which is very common in jazz music. These musical styles and influences, along with the youths discontent with the music scenario at the time, encouraged the musical revolutionaries to modernise music, thus creating the beautiful style known to all of us as bossa nova. Another definite and positive mus ical influence coming from Brazilian popular music is of local singers Lucio Alves and Dick Farney. Both singers were famous in the 1950s for having soft and peaceful vocals, as opposed to the stereotypical stronger and more powerful voice which was very common at the time. Dick Farneys music is considered nowadays to be the Pre bossa nova phase. All of these factors contributed to the creation of the style and practically differentiated the bossa nova style from all of the other existing acts in the world. During the year of 1957 and onwards, a selective group of middle classed young and aspiring musicians would gather together frequently in order to socialise, but most importantly, to play and make music. These people would get together and share their ideas in apartments or houses, at different spots around the city. The main place however where these people played music was at Nara Leaos apartment in Copacabana, a noble district in the city of Rio de Janeiro. The beautiful Nara Leà £o, at the time was only 15 years old, but nonetheless still participated in those reunions and already at that age showed great taste for music and outstanding vocal abilities. Nara Leao would later become a professional singer, touring with artists such as Sergio Mendes and becoming one of the styles greatest female icon, being referred to as thebossa novas muse and becoming forever immortalized in bossa novas history. In those musical reunions great musicians and singers such as Carlos Lyra and Robert o Menescal played part and were frequent attenders. As time progressed, that group gained more visibility and increased in size. Artists such as Ronaldo Boscoli, Chico Feitosa and the great Joao Gilberto soon made part of that same group which would revolutionize Brazilian music. Bossa nova was above all an emerging urban movement in the country during the developing phase of Juscelino Kubitscheks presidency years. It is believed by many critics that the style happened after the re-encounter of two members from the groups, Tom Jobim and Joao Gilberto in the year of 1957. According to writer Sà ³stenes Pernambuco Pires Barros (2001, my translation) Some researchers believe that from those meetings Bossa Nova was created. Poet Vinicius de Moraes agrees however the theme is very controversial. A massive surprise that was introduced by the style was the fact that the lyrics in the songs contrasted heavily with what was being played at the time. The lyrics from the style generally adopted light and easy going themes, something very different to the original samba songs which were usually sad and depressing. As was mentioned before, the form of singing and the way in which the lyrics were delivered in bossa nova style was completely different to the other more operatic voices in the music business. The style brought a form of different singing, instead of actually singing the words, singers would practically speak in a very colloquial way the words, thus singing in a not so loud way. By doing this, the focus of the song was ultimately the lyrics of the song, the way in which they were narrated to the listeners and most importantly the form that the accompaniment and harmony of the song were directly connected to the singing, as opposed to having weak harmonies and powerful vo ices. In order to revolutionise Brazilian music, composers from the style would use extensively the so called dissonant chords, which later rather ironically as a form of manifesto against the critics, Tom Jobim composed the tune called Desafinado (Out of Tune, my translation). It is important to state that the musical revolutionaries didnt in any way dislike the existing national musical styles, but intead believed that the the old samba tunes were especially melancholic and very depressing. The youth of the nation believed that the music had to be changed sooner or later. They would in the future go ahead and create the style bossa nova. A style that contained different harmonies, simpler lyrics and poetries, happy thoughts and most importantly, new rhythms. The style was however not intended to be better or worse than the other styles, it was meant to be simply different. Different from everything, more refined and with more optimistic views on the future. Brazilian writer who li ved and took part in the whole movement Sà ³stenes Pernambuco Pires Barros (2001, my translation) states that In reality, it cant even be classed as a musical genre. It is the form in which the music is treated, in relation to beats and rhythm. The first Bossa Nova mark officially started in May 1958 when female singer Elizeth Cardosos tracks were released in a LP with various artists. One of her two tracks was called Canà §Ãƒ £o Do Amor Demais (Loveful Tune, my translation). The LP featured the legendary Joao Gilberto playing guitar in her both tracks. These turned out to be the recordings that would characterize the new invented guitar accompaniment made by Joao Gilberto, which in a few years would be one of the styles greatest trademark feature. This feature was in actual fact the syncopated guitar groove, which was syncopated on every weak drum beat. That same LP was produced by label Festa and featured the other track by singer Elizeth Cardoso called Chega de Saudade (Enough of Longing) by the genius musical partners Tom Jobim and poet Vinicius de Morais. The LP when released intended to focus mainly on the partners and especially on Vinicius de Moraiss work, since he wished to record his best poetry and as consequenc e release it to the people. Surprisingly enough, according to a famous local journalist at the time Ruy Castro (1990, p.175, my translation) As opposed to what is believed today, that LP was not a hit when it was released in May 1958. Later on that year the same Joao Gilberto went on to record an LP as a solo artists in which for the first time he would sing and play. The LP featured one of the singers own songs, the tune Bim Bom but most importantly featured the same song from before Chega de Saudade of partners Tom Jobim and Vinicius de Moraes. Joao Gilberto brought his own special touch again to the cover version such as the characteristic guitar accompaniment and beat to the music, and in a sense brought to life once more the important features that would later become strong characteristics of the style. Joao Gilberto in his version also innovated and created the new way of singing to fit the style. He had sung the song using the features of the style mentioned previously above, this is singing with a not very loud voice and in a sense, nearly whispering into the microphone. The singer would later achieve both national and international success with that same song which features over 100 different covers by different artists, from those days until nowadays. According to the original composer of the song Tom Jobim The bossa nova of the song Chega de Saudade is practically concentrated on the harmonies, the altered chords which were not so used by musicians at the time, and in the new guitar hand picking groove executed by Joao Gilberto(2002, http://www.dicionariompb.com.br/verbete.asp?nome=Bossa+Novatabela=T_FORM_C). During the initial years, musicians from the old reunion groups formed in 1957 would play and present some of their music in local universities, in order to introduce their music to the people. Bossa nova music was in fact the first Brazilian musical movement to egress from universities, seeing that all of their initials performances took part in those areas. The musical group as a result gained even more visibility and followers, such as of composer Leny Andrade, famous for his instrumental music and the nowadays famous Sergio Mendes. As time progressed, the style was taken slowly to the other parts of the city of Rio de Janeiro, such as small venues and bars in the district of Copacabana, before achieving worldwide success and become a musical epidemic. After a few performances, musician Tom Jobim started to rise in popularity, as people got to listen more and understand better the new style being played. Tom Jobims music plays an important part in the history of classic bossa nova with tunes such as Desafinado and Samba De Uma Nota Sà ³ (One Note Samba, my translation). Those two songs in actual fact were the first songs chosen from the bossa nova style to enter the competitive American music market in the early 1960s. Together with Vinicius de Moraes, Tom Jobim created the all time bossa nova anthem known as Garota de Ipanema(Girl From Ipanema, my translation). That song in actual fact would later become the second most famous Brazilian song in the whole word, after only Aquarela do Brasil by composer Ary Barroso. Following the great acceptance of the style in American grounds, bossa nova artists were invited to play in what is known to many Brazilian musicians, as a historical concert in 1962 in the Carnegie Hall, New York. Some artists that played part in this event were obviously Tom Jobim and Joao Gilberto, Carlos Lyra, Sergio Mendes and many other famous names at the time. The concert was intended to approximate the bossa nova artists to the American people and the event proved to be a great success, opening new doors and boundaries for that style of music internationally. That concert had such great demands and visibility that it was broadcast to the whole world live. Since then, Tom Jobims song Garota de Ipanema has been featured and played in more than 150 different recordings by different artists. The song was such a successful hit that besides being played by the composer himself in 1963, it was also played shortly after by Sarah Vaughan in 1964, Stan Gets in 1966, Frank Sinatra and Tom Jobim together in 1967 and even the great Ella Fitzgerald in 1971, amongst other great national and international artists. Jazz saxofonist Stan Getz and guitarrist Charlie Byrd in 1962 even recorded a cover instrumental version of the song Desafinado by Tom Jobim, showing once more the great acceptance of bossa nova music on international grounds. The chronological end of the style in 1963 didnt by any means signify that the style would whatsoever become extinct. In fact, the style left a great big legacy of fans and followers and especially admirers of the great style. As was mentioned before, songs were extensively covered by great names of jazz music even after the official end of the Bossa Nova Years as a form of paying back what the Brazilian style did to their music. As Bossa Nova grew in America consequently so did Jazz music. In 1965, thus after the end of the musical movement, poet Vinicius de Moraes and musician Edu Lobo composed a song called Arrastao (Dragging, my translation). That same song was covered by singer Elis Regina. That song marked the end of Bossa Nova but only the start of what was going to be called in the future as MPB(Brazilian Popular Music), a style that would fuse many Brazilian styles and influences until the 1980s. In present time concerts are still put on dedicated to the Bossa Nova style suc h as when the style completed 40 years and other celebratory events. Also, in more recent years the style influenced greatly other generations of artists from a post British punk scene such as bands Style Council, Everything but the Girl and even Jamiroquai. The style can still be frequently heard also in electronic music where djs have used bossa nova influences, creating the style bossa electrica. From all of this it can be finally be concluded that although the style only lasted roughly six years, the great impact that it had on the people at those times and even nowadays is unquestionable. Bossa nova was undoubtedly a revolution in Brazilian music for the important changes it brought such as the developed way of singing and especially the syncopated guitar picking, thus creating the classic bossa nova groove. During the years, it was widely recognised as being an exotic style with songs being covered restlessly by many different artists around the world. The style also brought and made people more aware of great composers such as Tom Jobim and Joao Gilberto, which is considered to be the pope of the style for his creations and creations in Brazilian music. Bossa nova left behind a great legacy in music and with no doubts whatsoever will hopefully continue to do so, bringing happier, harmonic and enjoyable music to its listeners. Word Count: 2498 Reference List Barros, S.P.P. (2001) Histà ³rias da Bossa Nova Available at: http://www.almacarioca.com.br/mpb.htm (Accessed: 17 April 2009) Castro, Ruy. (1990) Chega de Saudade, Sà £o Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1990 Dicionà ¡rio Cravo Albin da Musica Brasileira, 2002 Available: http://www.dicionariompb.com.br/verbete.asp?nome=Bossa+Novatabela=T_FORM_C (Accessed): 17 April 2009)

Just War and Pacifism

Religious Studies lust War and Pacifism (l) Examine the view that some wars can be Justified. (21) What is just war? It's the act of war that must be justified because of the considerable losses which war entails. Pacifism? The pacifist will pursue every other option a prior to resorting to war. War actually has some advantages and can be justified; mainly It establishes peace. It stimulates the economy e. G. Weapon development, employment, reparations, rebuilding. War raises consciousness of call and human rights.It also advances technology and medicine. The Just War theory was developed my Augustine during the 3rd century and Aquinas during 1 13th century. This theory responded to the need for Christians to fight for the defense of the empire, but without compromising Christian principles, following Constantine conversion to Christianity. There are three categories: Jus ad bellum (conditions for going to war), Jus in belle (conditions during war), and Jus post bellum (conditions fo r ending war). Jus ad bellum has to have a Just cause e. . Aberration from oppression, to restore peace, protect the innocent, and self defense. Last resort which means after all peaceful methods of negotiation, sanctions; isolation; have failed. The legitimate authority has to approve e. G. The elected or recognized government of the land; religious authority If appropriate; military government that Is the legitimate authority A Just Intention should be present, a Just outcome as means e. G. Not to take a nations wealth is the process of lecturing peace.There should be a comparison of justice on tooth sides; in principle both sides should have a just cause and a Just intention. A reasonable likelihood of success, do not commit a nation to an unnamable war that will lead to Increasing suffering. Also, the level of weaponry should be proportionate to the offense e. G. Conflict becoming a country for a dispute over trade. Jus in Belle, the conditions during war. There should be reason able proportion between injustices fought and suffering cause, but is the suffering worth it? E. G. Vietnam war. Considerably not World War II, conceivably so.The use of weapons would be proportionate; weapon technology changes and develops during the course of war- it should remain proportionate to the weaponry/man power of the enemy. Warfare must be discriminate, targeting non-competent, civilian facilities, medical facilities Is not Just. Jus post bellum, the conditions for bringing an end to conflict. First of all you should provide assurances to combatants about the terms necessary to end a conflict. Provide terms for the end of war and guideline for the construction of peace treaties. Prevent continuous fighting throughout peace negotiations.Also, prevent draconian and vengeful peace terms. It limits the chance of future generations, suffering, and conflict reigniting. War crimes punishment should distinguish between 1 OFF aggressor in two forms; compensation to the victim for losses incurred and war crime trials for the aggressor. Terms for settlement should be measure and reasonable and should be made public. Leaders, soldiers, and civilians must be distinguished. Basically, wars can be Justified if only you follow these principles and have a good, thoughtful and peaceful reason to start a war. T) To what extent can this view be challenged by pacifism? (9) What is pacifism? The belief that war is incompatible with obedience to the gospel of Jesus, and is superseded by the command to love enemies and pray for persecutors, particularly Christian pacifism. Also, it is possible to be pacifist on humanitarian principles without religious focus. Absolute of total pacifism is no engagement in any military activity. It's notable associated with the Quakers and Amiss and it's unofficially the policy of many individual Christians.Jesus referred to SE violence and taught his disciples not to respond violently e. G. â€Å"Put your sword away, for all who draw the sword will die by the sword† (Matthew 26:52). He forgives his executioners: â€Å"Father, forgive them for they do not know what they are doing. † (Luke 23:34) This quote by Jesus was taken out of most Bibles because the writers disagreed with the forgiveness of Jesus' executioners. Jesus could have been more revolutionary; Steven Brandon has argued the case that Jesus was a zealot. Also, religious support came from Paul e. G. ‘Do not take revenge, but leave room forGod's wrath' (Romans 12:19); Judgment belongs to God, it is not humans responsibility. Paul also teaches submission to, not rebellion against, the ruling powers. ‘Do you want to be free of fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and he will commend you' (Romans 13:5). This was the pragmatic teaching in a time of impending persecution. ‘The spirit of Christ, which leads us into all truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man' (The Quakers). Even though a war can b e Justified, it doesn't mean it is a good idea to start it. Pacifism challenges the Just War theory.No matter how it can be Justified or what kind of peace you want to establish, war is always bad. Pacifism is a very religious but at the same time peaceful and the right view. ‘Christian peacemakers†¦ Are to live at peace†¦ Love their enemies, overcome evil with good†¦ And become ministers of reconciliation' Noon Sotto). Only the most wise and enlightened will understand pacifism and disagree with Just war. But even though pacifism seems like a solution to all our suffering, people will never achieve it because humans are too selfish and too obsessed with power and money. Just War and Pacifism Religious Studies lust War and Pacifism (l) Examine the view that some wars can be Justified. (21) What is just war? It's the act of war that must be justified because of the considerable losses which war entails. Pacifism? The pacifist will pursue every other option a prior to resorting to war. War actually has some advantages and can be justified; mainly It establishes peace. It stimulates the economy e. G. Weapon development, employment, reparations, rebuilding. War raises consciousness of call and human rights.It also advances technology and medicine. The Just War theory was developed my Augustine during the 3rd century and Aquinas during 1 13th century. This theory responded to the need for Christians to fight for the defense of the empire, but without compromising Christian principles, following Constantine conversion to Christianity. There are three categories: Jus ad bellum (conditions for going to war), Jus in belle (conditions during war), and Jus post bellum (conditions fo r ending war). Jus ad bellum has to have a Just cause e. . Aberration from oppression, to restore peace, protect the innocent, and self defense. Last resort which means after all peaceful methods of negotiation, sanctions; isolation; have failed. The legitimate authority has to approve e. G. The elected or recognized government of the land; religious authority If appropriate; military government that Is the legitimate authority A Just Intention should be present, a Just outcome as means e. G. Not to take a nations wealth is the process of lecturing peace.There should be a comparison of justice on tooth sides; in principle both sides should have a just cause and a Just intention. A reasonable likelihood of success, do not commit a nation to an unnamable war that will lead to Increasing suffering. Also, the level of weaponry should be proportionate to the offense e. G. Conflict becoming a country for a dispute over trade. Jus in Belle, the conditions during war. There should be reason able proportion between injustices fought and suffering cause, but is the suffering worth it? E. G. Vietnam war. Considerably not World War II, conceivably so.The use of weapons would be proportionate; weapon technology changes and develops during the course of war- it should remain proportionate to the weaponry/man power of the enemy. Warfare must be discriminate, targeting non-competent, civilian facilities, medical facilities Is not Just. Jus post bellum, the conditions for bringing an end to conflict. First of all you should provide assurances to combatants about the terms necessary to end a conflict. Provide terms for the end of war and guideline for the construction of peace treaties. Prevent continuous fighting throughout peace negotiations.Also, prevent draconian and vengeful peace terms. It limits the chance of future generations, suffering, and conflict reigniting. War crimes punishment should distinguish between 1 OFF aggressor in two forms; compensation to the victim for losses incurred and war crime trials for the aggressor. Terms for settlement should be measure and reasonable and should be made public. Leaders, soldiers, and civilians must be distinguished. Basically, wars can be Justified if only you follow these principles and have a good, thoughtful and peaceful reason to start a war. T) To what extent can this view be challenged by pacifism? (9) What is pacifism? The belief that war is incompatible with obedience to the gospel of Jesus, and is superseded by the command to love enemies and pray for persecutors, particularly Christian pacifism. Also, it is possible to be pacifist on humanitarian principles without religious focus. Absolute of total pacifism is no engagement in any military activity. It's notable associated with the Quakers and Amiss and it's unofficially the policy of many individual Christians.Jesus referred to SE violence and taught his disciples not to respond violently e. G. â€Å"Put your sword away, for all who draw the sword will die by the sword† (Matthew 26:52). He forgives his executioners: â€Å"Father, forgive them for they do not know what they are doing. † (Luke 23:34) This quote by Jesus was taken out of most Bibles because the writers disagreed with the forgiveness of Jesus' executioners. Jesus could have been more revolutionary; Steven Brandon has argued the case that Jesus was a zealot. Also, religious support came from Paul e. G. ‘Do not take revenge, but leave room forGod's wrath' (Romans 12:19); Judgment belongs to God, it is not humans responsibility. Paul also teaches submission to, not rebellion against, the ruling powers. ‘Do you want to be free of fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and he will commend you' (Romans 13:5). This was the pragmatic teaching in a time of impending persecution. ‘The spirit of Christ, which leads us into all truth, will never move us to fight and war against any man' (The Quakers). Even though a war can b e Justified, it doesn't mean it is a good idea to start it. Pacifism challenges the Just War theory.No matter how it can be Justified or what kind of peace you want to establish, war is always bad. Pacifism is a very religious but at the same time peaceful and the right view. ‘Christian peacemakers†¦ Are to live at peace†¦ Love their enemies, overcome evil with good†¦ And become ministers of reconciliation' Noon Sotto). Only the most wise and enlightened will understand pacifism and disagree with Just war. But even though pacifism seems like a solution to all our suffering, people will never achieve it because humans are too selfish and too obsessed with power and money.

Alan Klein Sugarball

Alan Klein’s Sugarball is both a historical overview and cultural study of how citizens of the Dominican Republic not only enjoy baseball but use it as a means of cultural self-expression and, more importantly, resistance to American domination of their small country.   Though not openly hostile to the United States, the Dominican public uses baseball as a means of asserting pride and equality in the face of long, formidable neocolonial domination. Baseball is a specifically American entity only partly because it was created and evolved in the United States, where for decades it remained the dominant spectator sport.   More importantly, Klein asserts, baseball is uniquely American in how it has spread to other nations and dominates the game elsewhere.   It has the largest and strongest organization, the richest teams, largest fan base, most lucrative broadcasting and advertising contracts, and most extensive networks for scouting and player development. Baseball’s presence in the Dominican Republic (among the western hemisphere’s poorest nations) is also uniquely American because, as with other aspects of American culture, it was brought there as American domination spread throughout the Caribbean American interests assumed control of the Dominican economy. However, unlike other American corporations, Major League Baseball did not provoke widespread, unmitigated resentment, but is for the most part supported by the nation’s people.   In addition, the methods long used to scout and sign Dominican ballplayers is similarly dubious and rifer with duplicity; Klein calls their methods â€Å"so reminiscent of those of the West African slave traders of three centuries earlier† (42). In terms of the game itself, the rules and style in each are generally the same, and while Dominicans play the game with an intensity equal with Americans, their approach to other aspects of baseball are more casual, reflecting that society’s leniency and lax approach to time.   While Dominican players play as hard as their American teammates and opponents, they embrace a much more casual attitude toward time, frequently showing up late for meetings or practice unless specifically required to be punctual.   In addition, they tend to be more exuberant and unrestrained; playing the game seriously is not equated with a somber demeanor. Most of the differences lie off the field, particularly in the atmosphere of a stadium on game day.   The fan culture is radically different; where American fans are more restrained, often get to games on time, and can sometimes be confrontational with other fans, Dominican fans are generally louder, more physically and temperamentally relaxed, more effusive (even with strangers), and, despite the demonstrative body language and shouting shown in arguments, there is far less violence than at an American ballgame. Klein attributes this to the fact that â€Å"[Dominican fans] are far more social than North Americans, more in tune with human frailty.   Because they see so much human vulnerability, because they are closer to the margins of life, they are more likely to resist the urge to bully and harm† (148). Economic power essentially defines the relationship between American and Dominican baseball, because Major League Baseball develops and signs much of the local Dominican talent, leaving the Dominican professional league and amateur ranks underdeveloped and subordinate to the North American teams who establish baseball academies and working agreements with Dominican teams. Since 1955, when the major leagues established working agreements with Dominican professional clubs (and, more significantly, eliminated the â€Å"color line† that prevented most Dominicans, who are predominantly mulatto, from playing), American baseball has shown its hegemony over its Dominican counterpart, turning the latter into a virtual colony by taking its raw resources and giving back very little in return.   Klein comments: â€Å"The lure of cheap, abundant talent in the Dominican Republic led American teams to establish a more substantial presence there . . . [and the] bonds between American and Dominican baseball came increasingly to resemble other economic and political relations between the two countries† (36). Klein writes that most Dominicans accept American dominance of their baseball, adding that â€Å"whereas giants such as Falconbridge and GTE are resented, major league teams are largely supported† (2), mainly because Dominican players have such a notable presence and bring positive attention to their impoverished homeland.   This support is by no means unconditional, though; they steadfastly refuse to approach the game with American businesslike gravitas; instead, they treat the game itself somewhat like Carnival, with joy coexisting alongside energetic, intense play. Resistance appears in the way Dominican players relax at home, interacting more freely with fans, who themselves resist American baseball’s decorum by being themselves and creating a festive, effusive, Carnival-like atmosphere.   According to Klein, â€Å"The game remains American in structure, but its setting is Dominican and it has become infused with Dominican values† (149).   Indeed, the park fosters a microcosm of Dominican society, particularly its impoverished economy, and unlike the more slick American baseball business, it does not exclude its marginal activities. In addition to the paid vendors and park employees within the stadium, an illicit economy flourishes both within and on the outside, with self-appointed â€Å"car watchers,† vendors, and ushers (adults and children alike) plying their trade for small fees, and bookmakers work openly, often in the presence of the police, who turn a blind eye to most illegal activity aside from the rare fight. Dominican baseball’s symbolic significance is not a sense of the pastoral heritage, like some in America interpret it; instead, it reflects Dominicans’ sense of themselves being dominated by the United States, and offers a symbolic outlet for striking back. In his preface, Klein writes: â€Å"The tensions between a batter who has two strikes against him and the opposing pitcher are a metaphor for the political and cultural tensions described in this book† (xi).   Indeed, the Dominican republic’s deeply entrenched poverty and long domination by foreign powers give it a feeling of vulnerability and compel its people to seek some means of besting the dominant power – if not politically or economically, then at least athletically. At the start of the book, Klein states that â€Å"every turn at bat is a candle of hope, every swing is the wave of a banner, the sweeping arc of a sword† (1).   Indeed, when a Dominican reaches the major leagues and excels, it is not merely an athletic success story but a symbolic invasion and conquest of the conqueror’s territory.   (The United States twice occupied the Dominican Republic in the twentieth century, an ever-present fact in Dominicans’ minds.) Also, the atmosphere in the crowd of a Dominican professional game serves as the country’s symbolic assertion of its culture in the face of American dominance.   At Santo Domingo’s Quisqueya Stadium, one witnesses â€Å"a mass spectacle that makes simultaneous use of American and Dominican elements. . . . [Baseball] at Quisqueya embodies many of the things that North Americans find blameworthy in Dominican culture – lateness, overly casual behavior, inefficiency.   But the Dominicans see these characteristics as a source of pride, and they take their game seriously† (150). The Dominican baseball press is a source of more open resistance; says Klein, â€Å"the press has inadvertently created a Latino universe of discourse, one in which North Americans are conspicuously absent† (127).   Its journalists display an obvious bias by devoting so much attention to Dominicans in the major leagues that one hardly knows other nationalities even participate. In addition, Dominican baseball writers openly blame Dominican baseball’s problems on American control, protesting a skewed economic relationship that mirrors the larger political and economic imbalance.   They promote much of the public’s pride, says Klein, but that pride is â€Å"tempered by the view that Dominican baseball is still an adjunct to the American game† (121).   Dominican resistance is thus aimed at countering this uncomfortable fact. In baseball terms, American culture interacts with Dominican culture by treating it with some degree of condescension and insensitivity.   Many American baseball professionals are impatient with Dominicans’ loose sense of time, quickly deeming Latino players uncoachable â€Å"head cases,† without looking at the cultural differences. Among Dominicans, says Klein, â€Å"There is none of the regimentation, guardedness, and nervous tension that characterizes players in the United States.   North American managers must take this looseness into account when they go to the Caribbean, for the players’ conception of the game and of time is as elastic as that of other Dominicans† (148). Despite the United States’ long domination of the Dominican Republic, the small nation’s people feel less anger than a mixture of muted resentment and aspiration to attain American material prosperity and stability, which for most are a distant, unreachable ideal.   Thus, when Dominican ballplayers reach the major leagues, their large salaries represent a sort of victory and source of immense pride for the small island nation.   Says Klein, â€Å"Much as archeological treasures attest to a rich Dominican past, salaries attest to the present† (128). Klein’s study pays keen attention not only to Dominican history but also to the ways in which Dominicans embrace this imported sport but also use their prowess to offer their own subtle response to American political and economic dominance.   The dynamic he describes illustrates not only American hegemony, but also how subordinated peoples’ identity and spirit can thrive even in the face of foreign domination. Klein, Alan M.   Sugarball.   New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991.

Gender Inequality And Gender Wage Gap - 2375 Words

This is known as gender income difference i.e. the ratio of female to male median yearly earnings among full time year round workers. It is also the average difference between men’s and women’s hourly earnings, the gender pay gap has grown from 14.8 per cent last year to 19.7per cent this year, overtime not included.( Warren 2005) .Studies have shown that this gap has increased over the years, hence widening the gap in the society. These figures must act as a wake-up call for the government. Women’s position in the market and their wider financial security are at grave risk. Factors to explain gender pay gap. This paper goes to elaborate the factor that contributes to gender wage gap, its effects and the remedies that can be implemented to narrow and how Women are seen to be looking for jobs with less risk because it provides flexibility to manage both work and family, and by the notion that says women are the weaker sex but not risk takers. Then men on the other hand capitalized on this believing in themselves as the risk taker. This is because men take up jobs like engineering and surgeons while women take up jobs of nurturing and less demanding jobs but this has changed over the years in the society as women can practically do any job in this generation. (Fisanick, 2008). Level of education is another factor contributing to this gap (Beardwell, Claydon, 2010). Studies have shown that a lower percentage of women go for higher education after finishing their O levelsShow MoreRelatedGender Wage Gap And Gender Inequality1740 Words   |  7 PagesThe gender wage gap is defined as the relative difference in earnings between men and women in the economy as a whole. For every dollar a man makes, his female counterpart makes roughly seventy-seven cents. Even if a men and women have the same educational background and work history the man will go home with a higher paycheck than the woman. 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